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In basic terms, a student visa is dependent on the student being enrolled at a school, and most schools do have some sort of minimum level of grades or test scores students are required to maintain in order to continue being enrolled. For example. if you get accepted to a university, then fail each and every class for two years in a row, odds are you're going to get kicked out (and that's not unique to the Japanese education system either).
So yes, it's possible that if your grades are too low, they'll fall below the minimum standards of the school, and if that causes you to get expelled, you'd no longer be enrolled at a school, which would likely void your student visa (the student visa was issued so that you could study at a school in Japan, but if you've been expelled, you're no longer doing that).
「Can they do that whenever? Or just at the end of the year?」
This depends on the enrollment policies of the individual school. Generally speaking, though, most schools will have periodic assessments of the students' performance, such as at the end of the semester or academic year (the periods may be shorter at some language or vocational schools). You can probably rest assured that most schools aren't going to do this on a daily though, so it's not going to be like "Oh, you got a bad grade on yesterday's mini quiz, so we're kicking you out of school." Because students always have the chance to improve their overall grade by scoring well on assignments and tests later inn the period, generally checks to see if a student is meeting the minimum requirements come at the end of the period.
Attendance requirements, obviously, work in the opposite direction. There's a certain number of absences students are allowed, and once they use them up, that's when they get in trouble.
「I'm not one of the best students around...and I was worried」
If you're worried about your grades, and especially if you're meeting the minimum requirements to stay enrolled and maintain your student visa, talk to your school's staff (counsellors, admissions officers, teachers etc.).
You're in luck in that, from the school's perspective, they don't want to kick anyone out who they've already accepted. There's nothing to be gained for them by expelling you, and so most schools are willing to provide extra support for students whose grades are low, as long as the student themselves shows a willingness to make an effort to improve.
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